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Rare earth metals

As defined by IUPAC, rare earth elements or rare earth metals are a collection of seventeen chemical elements in the periodic table, namely scandium, yttrium, and the fifteen lanthanoids.[1] Scandium and yttrium are considered rare earths since they tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanoids and exhibit similar chemical properties.

The term "rare earth" arises from the minerals from which they were first isolated, which were uncommon oxide-type minerals (earths) found in Gadolinite extracted from one mine in the village of Ytterby, Sweden. However, with the exception of the highly-unstable promethium, rare earth elements are found in relatively high concentrations in the earth's crust, with cerium being the 25th most abundant element in the earth's crust at 68 parts per million.

Technological applications

Rare earth elements are incorporated into many modern technological devices, including superconductors, samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron high-flux magnets, electronic polishers, refining catalysts and hybrid car components. Rare earth ions are used as the active ions in luminescent materials used in optoelectronics applications, most notably the Nd:YAG laser. Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers are significant devices in optical-fiber communication systems. Phosphors with rare earth dopants are also widely used in cathode ray tube technology such as television sets. The earliest color television CRTs had a poor-quality red; europium as a phosphor dopant made good red phosphors possible. Yttrium iron garnet (YIG) spheres have been useful as tunable microwave resonators.

Global rare earth production

Until 1948, most of the world's Rare Earths were sourced from placer sand deposits in India and Brazil.Through the 1950s, South Africa took the status as the world's Rare Earth source, after large Rare Earth bearing veins were discovered in Monazite.Today, those Indian and South African deposits still produce some Rare Earth concentrates, but they are dwarfed by the scale of Chinese production. China now produces over 95% of the world's Rare Earth supply.

The use of rare earth elements in modern technology has increased dramatically over the past years. For example, dysprosium has gained significant importance for its use in the construction of hybrid car motors. Unfortunately, this new demand has strained supply, and there is growing concern that the world may soon face a shortage of the materials. All of the world's heavy rare earths (such as dysprosium) are sourced from Chinese Rare Earth sources such as the polymetallic Bayan Obo deposit. Illegal rare earth mines are common in rural China and are often known to release toxic wastes into the general water supply.

Chinese export quotas have also resulted in a dramatic shift in the world's Rare Earth knowledge base. For example, the division of General Motors which deals with miniaturized magnet research shut down its US office and moved all of its staff to China in 2006.

稀土金属

稀土金属(rare earth metals)又称稀土元素，是元素周期表ⅢB族中钪、钇、镧系17种元素的总称，常用R或RE表示。
　　它们的名称和化学符号是钪(Sc)、钇(Y)、镧(La)、铈(Ce)、镨(Pr)、钕(Nd)、钷(Pm)、钐(Sm)、铕(Eu)、钆(Gd)、铽(Tb)、镝(Dy)、钬(Ho)、铒(Er)、铥(Tm)、镱(Yb)、镥(Lu)。它们的原子序数是21(Sc)、39(Y)、57(La)到71(Lu)。
　　稀土一词是历史遗留下来的名称。稀土元素是从18世纪末叶开始陆续发现，当时人们常把不溶于水的固体氧化物称为土。稀土一般是以氧化物状态分离出来的，又很稀少，因而得名为稀土。通常把镧、铈、镨、钕、钷、钐、铕称为轻稀土或铈组稀土；把钆、铽、镝、钬、铒、铥、镱、镥钇称为重稀土或钇组稀土。也有的根据稀土元素物理化学性质的相似性和差异性，除钪之外(有的将钪划归稀散元素)，划分成三组，即轻稀土组为镧、铈、镨、钕、钷；中稀土组为钐、铕、钆、铽、镝；重稀土组为钬、铒、铥、镱、镥、钇。
　　这些稀土元素的发现，从1794年芬兰人加多林(J.Gadolin)分离出钇到1947年美国人马林斯基(J.A.Marinsky)等制得钷，历时150多年。其中大部分稀土元素是欧洲的一些矿物学家、化学家、冶金学家等发现制取的。钷是美国人马林斯基、格兰德宁(L.E.Glendenin)和科列尔(C.D.Coryell)用离子交换分离，在铀裂变产物的稀土元素中获得的。过去认为自然界中不存在钷，直到1965年，芬兰一家磷酸盐工厂在处理磷灰石时发现了痕量的钷。
　　大多数稀土金属呈现顺磁性。钆在0℃时比铁具更强的铁磁性。铽、镝、钬、铒等在低温下也呈现铁磁性，镧、铈的低熔点和钐、铕、镱的高蒸气压表现出稀土金属的物理性质有极大差异。钐、铕、钇的热中子吸收截面比广泛用于核反应堆控制材料的镉、硼还大。稀土金属具有可塑性，以钐和镱为最好。除镱外，钇组稀土较铈组稀土具有更高的硬度。
　　稀土金属已广泛应用于电子、石油化工、冶金、机械、能源、轻工、环境保护、农业等领域。应用稀土可生产荧光材料、稀土金属氢化物电池材料、电光源材料、永磁材料、储氢材料、催化材料、精密陶瓷材料、激光材料、超导材料、磁致伸缩材料、磁致冷材料、磁光存储材料、光导纤维材料等。
　　我国拥有丰富的稀土矿产资源，成矿条件优越，堪称得天独厚，探明的储量居世界之首，为发展我国稀土工业提供了坚实的基础。
　　稀散金属通常是指由镓(Ga)、铟(In)、铊(Tl)、锗(Ge)、硒(Se)、碲(Te)和铼(Re)7个元素组成的一组化学元素。但也有人将铷、铪、钪、钒和镉等包括在内。这7个元素从1782年发现碲以来，直到1925年发现铼才被全部发现。这一组元素之所以被称为稀散金属，一是因为它们之间的物理及化学性质等相似，划为一组；二是由于它们常以类质同象形式存在有关的矿物当中，难以形成独立的具有单独开采价值的稀散金属矿床，(最近在四川省石棉县发现一处以碲为主的碲铋矿床)；三是它们在地壳中平均含量较低，以稀少分散状态伴生在其他矿物之中，只能随开采主金属矿床时在选冶中加以综合回收、综合利用。
　　稀散金属具有极为重要的用途，是当代高科技新材料的重要组成部分。由稀散金属与有色金属组成的一系列化合物半导体、电子光学材料、特殊合金、新型功能材料及有机金属化合物等，均需使用独特性能的稀散金属。用量虽说不大，但至关重要，缺它不可。因而广泛用于当代通讯技术、电子计算机、宇航开发、医药卫生、感光材料、光电材料、能源材料和催化剂材料等。我国稀散金属矿产丰富，为发展稀散金属工业提供了较好的资源条件。