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Forging

Forging is the term for shaping metal by using localized compressive forces. Cold forging is done at room temperature or near room temperature. Hot forging is done at a high temperature, which makes metal easier to shape and less likely to fracture. Warm forging is done at intermediate temperature between room temperature and hot forging temperatures. Forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to 170 metric tons.[1] Forged parts usually require further processing to achieve a finished part.

History
Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking processes.[1]

Forging was done historically by a smith using hammer and anvil, and though the use of water power in the production and working of iron dates to the 12th century, the hammer and anvil are not obsolete. The smithy has evolved over centuries to the forge shop with engineered processes, production equipment, tooling, raw materials and products to meet the demands of modern industry. In modern times, industrial forging is done either with presses or with hammers powered by compressed air, electricity, hydraulics or steam. These hammers are large, having reciprocating weights in the thousands of pounds. Smaller power hammers, 500 lb (230 kg) or less reciprocating weight, and hydraulic presses are common in art smithies as well. Steam hammers are becoming obsolete.
Advantages and disadvantages
Forging results in metal that is stronger than cast or machined metal parts. This stems from the grain flow caused through forging. As the metal is pounded the grains deform to follow the shape of the part, thus the grains are unbroken throughout the part. Some modern parts take advantage of this for a high strength-to-weight ratio.

Many metals are forged cold, but iron and its alloys are almost always forged hot. This is for two reasons: first, if work hardening were allowed to progress, hard materials such as iron and steel would become extremely difficult to work with; secondly, steel can be strengthened by other means than cold-working, thus it is more economical to hot forge and then heat treat. Alloys that are amenable to precipitation hardening, such as most alloys of aluminium and titanium, can also be hot forged then hardened. Other materials must be strengthened by the forging process itself.
Hot forging
Hot forging is defined as working a metal above its recrystallization temperature. The main advantage of hot forging is that as the metal is deformed the strain-hardening effects are negated by the recrystallization process.[2]

Cold forging
Cold forging is defined as working a metal below its recrystallization temperature, but usually around room temperature. If the temperature is above 0.3 times the melting temperature (on an absolute scale) then it qualifies as warm forging.[3]

Processes

There are many different kinds of forging processes available, however they can be grouped into three main classes:

Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases
Upset: Length decreases, cross-section increases
Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional flow
Common forging processes include: roll forging, swaging, cogging, open-die forging, impression-die forging, press forging, automatic hot forging and upsetting.

Open-die drop-hammer forging
Open-die forging is also known as smith forging. In open-die forging a hammer comes down and deforms the workpiece, which is placed on a stationary anvil. Open-die forging gets its name from the fact that the dies (the working surfaces of the forge that contact the workpiece) do not enclose the workpiece, allowing it to flow except where contacted by the dies. Therefore the operator needs to orient and position the workpiece to get the desired shape. The dies are usually flat in shape, but some have a specially shaped surface for specialized operations. For instance, the die may have a round, concave, or convex surface or be a tool to form holes or be a cut-off tool.

Open-die forging lends itself to short runs and is appropriate for art smithing and custom work. Other times open-die forging is used to rough shape ingots to prepare them for further operations. This can also orient the grains to increase strength in the required direction.

Impression-die drop-hammer forging
Impression-die forging is also called closed-die forging. In impression-die work metal is placed in a die resembling a mold, which is attached to the anvil. Usually the hammer die is shaped as well. The hammer is then dropped on the workpiece, causing the metal to flow and fill the die cavities. The hammer is generally in contact with the workpiece on the scale of milliseconds. Depending on the size and complexity of the part the hammer may be dropped multiple times in quick succession. Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities; this is called flash. The flash cools more rapidly than the rest of the material; this cool metal is stronger than the metal in the die so it helps prevent more flash from forming. This also forces the metal to completely fill the die cavity. After forging the flash is trimmed off.

In commercial impression-die forging the workpiece is usually moved through a series of cavities in a die to get from an ingot to the final form. The first impression is used to distribute the metal into the rough shape in accordance to the needs of later cavities; this impression is called a edging, fullering, or bending impression. The following cavities are called blocking cavities in which the workpiece is working into a shape that more and more resembles the final product. These stages usually impart the workpiece with generous bends and large fillets. The final shape is forged in a final or finisher impression cavity. If there is only a short run of parts to be done it may be more economical for the die to lack a final impression cavity and rather machine the final features.

Impression-die forging has been further improved in recent years through increased automation which includes induction heating, mechanical feeding, positioning and manipulation, and the direct heat treatment of parts after forging.

One variation of impression-die forging is called flashless forging, or true closed-die forging. In this type of forging the die cavities are completely closed, which keeps the workpiece from forming flash. The major advantage to this process is that less metal is lost to flash. Flash can account for 20 to 45% of the starting material. The disadvantages of this process included: additional cost due to a more complex die design, the need for better lubrication, and better workpiece placement.

There are other variations of part formation that integrate impression-die forging. One method incorporates casting a forging preform from liquid metal. The casting is removed after it has solidified, but while still hot. It is then finished in a single cavity die. The flash is trimmed and then quenched to room temperature to harden the part. Another variation follows the same process as outlined above, except the preform is produced by the spraying deposition of metal droplet into shaped collectors (similar to the Osprey process).

Closed-die forging has a high initial cost due to the creation of dies and required design work to make working die cavities. However, it has low recurring costs for each part, thus forgings become more economical with more volume. This is one of the major reasons forgings are often used in the automotive and tool industry. Another reason forgings are common in these industrial sectors is because forgings generally have about a 20% higher strength to weight ratio compared to cast or machined parts of the same material.
锻造　　　

利用锻压机械对金属坯料施加压力，使其产生塑性变形以获得具有一定机械性能、一定形状和尺寸锻件的加工方法。锻压(锻造与冲压)的两大组成部分之一。通过锻造能消除金属在冶炼过程中产生的铸态疏松等缺陷，优化微观组织结构，同时由于保存了完整的金属流线，锻件的机械性能一般优于同样材料的铸件。相关机械中负载高、工作条件严峻的重要零件，除形状较简单的可用轧制的板材、型材或焊接件外，多采用锻件。

锻造的分类
　　1.根据坯料的移动方式，锻造可分为自由锻、镦粗、挤压、模锻、闭式模锻、闭式镦锻。
　　①自由锻。利用冲击力或压力使金属在上下两个抵铁（砧块）间产生变形以获得所需锻件，主要有手工锻造和机械锻造两种。
　　②模锻。模锻又分为开式模锻和闭式模锻．金属坯料在具有一定形状的锻模膛内受压变形而获得锻件，又可分为冷镦、辊锻、径向锻造和挤压等等。
　　2.按变形温度，锻造又可分为热锻（锻造温度高于坯料金属的再结晶温度）、温锻（锻造温度低于金属的再结晶温度）和冷锻（常温）。钢的再结晶温度约为460℃，但普遍采用800℃作为划分线，高于800℃的是热锻；在300～800℃之间称为温锻或半热锻。

锻造的材料和流程
　　锻造用料主要是各种成分的碳素钢和合金钢，其次是铝、镁、铜、钛等及其合金。材料的原始状态有棒料、铸锭、金属粉末和液态金属。 金属在变形前的横断面积与变形后的横断面积之比称为锻造比。正确地选择锻造比、合理的加热温度及保温时间、合理的始锻温度和终锻温度、合理的变形量及变形速度对提高产品质量、降低成本有很大关系。
　　一般的中小型锻件都用圆形或方形棒料作为坯料。棒料的晶粒组织和机械性能均匀、良好，形状和尺寸准确，表面质量好，便于组织批量生产。只要合理控制加热温度和变形条件，不需要大的锻造变形就能锻出性能优良的锻件。

　　铸锭仅用于大型锻件。铸锭是铸态组织，有较大的柱状晶和疏松的中心。因此必须通过大的塑性变形，将柱状晶破碎为细晶粒，将疏松压实，才能获得优良的金属组织和机械性能。
　　经压制和烧结成的粉末冶金预制坯，在热态下经无飞边模锻可制成粉末锻件。锻件粉末接近于一般模锻件的密度，具有良好的机械性能，并且精度高，可减少后续的切削加工。粉末锻件内部组织均匀，没有偏析，可用于制造小型齿轮等工件。但粉末的价格远高于一般棒材的价格，在生产中的应用受到一定限制。 、
　　对浇注在模膛的液态金属施加静压力，使其在压力作用下凝固、结晶、流动、塑性变形和成形，就可获得所需形状和性能的模锻件。液态金属模锻是介于压铸和模锻间的成形方法，特别适用于一般模锻难于成形的复杂薄壁件。
　　不同的锻造方法有不同的流程，其中以热模锻的工艺流程最长，一般顺序为：锻坯下料；锻坯加热；辊锻备坯；模锻成形；切边；中间检验，检验锻件的尺寸和表面缺陷；锻件热处理，用以消除锻造应力，改善金属切削性能；清理，主要是去除表面氧化皮；矫正；检查，一般锻件要经过外观和硬度检查，重要锻件还要经过化学成分分析、机械性能、残余应力等检验和无损探伤。
　　锻造用料除了通常的材料，如各种成分的碳素钢和合金钢，其次是铝、镁、铜、钛等及其合金之外，铁基高温合金，镍基高温合金，钴基高温合金的变形合金也采用锻造或轧制方式完成，只是这些合金由于其塑性区相对较窄，所以锻造难度会相对较大，不同材料的加热温度，开锻温度与终锻温度都有严格的要求。